Housing market in China Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Housing market in China - Case Study Example The method that was adapted in this study to accomplish the aim involved the discussion of the characteristics of globalization and how it leads to economic growth. A background on the property market and its dynamics is also provided. The period under study were divided into two: 1999-2000 and 2001 up to now. The topics were divided into the commercial and residential sector. This was done to provide for points of comparison. An extensive search of primary and secondary literature was conducted on all available resources such as peer-reviewed journals, magazines, newspaper, other scholarly articles and finally, the Internet. Business information providers from the public sector such as China's Statistics Center and private venture such as the GoldmanSachs provided many historical and statistical data and were subsequently used. Results of the study indicates that there were many factors that led to the boom in the property market industry which includes government reforms, flow of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), worldwide events sponsored by China and other market reforms. With regards to the commercial sector, the supply was mainly fuelled by the demand generated by people belonging to multinational companies. In the residential sector, the supply was fuelled by people migrating from rural areas to work in the urban areas which was developed with the influx of investments of both Chinese and foreign businessmen. All of these developments were argued to be largely a result of China globalizing itself. In the end, it was concluded that globalization did indeed fuelled the rise in the property market sector. Chapter 1. Introduction China went under Communist control with the victory of Mao Zedong over the Nationalist Chiang Kai Shek. In spite of the spirit that animated the country, it was only due to the efforts of President Deng Xiaoping to reform and the open-up China that the country has undergone a profound transformation never seen in the country before. His efforts would prove to be a step toward China embracing the globalization concept. Chinese President Hu Jintao (2005) relates that China has benefited from globalization because in a short span of 26 years from 1978 to 2004, China's GDP increased from $147.3 billion to $1.6494 trillion registering an average annual growth rate of 9.4% while foreign trade rose from $20.6 billion to $1.1548 trillion with an average annual growth rate of over 16%. China's foreign exchange reserve increased from $167 million to $609.9 billion while the number of rural poor has decreased significantly from 250 million to 26 million. Jintao (2005) further notes that by the end of 2004, China had attracted a total of $562.1 billion in FDI, approved the establishment in China of more than 500,000 foreign-funded enterprises and created a huge import market of some $560 billion annually. At present, most countries and regions have had enterprises with investment in China, and over 400 firms out of the Fortune 500 have invested in China. The number of R&D centers set up by foreign investors i n China has exceeded 700. The overall national strength of China has remarkably increased while the quality of life of its

Student-Centred Educational Philosophy Essay Example for Free

Student-Centred Educational Philosophy Essay Educational Philosophy 1. 1 Introduction There are five main philosophical schools of thought in education which are essentialism, perennialism, progressivism, existentialism and reconstructionism. However, here I have only chosen the philosophies which believe in student-centred approach. There are three philosophies that hold the similarity of being less authoritarian and placing the students as the centre in learning process. These three philosophies reject essentialism and do not agree with traditional mediums of teaching. They are recontructionism, progressivism, and existentialism 1. Reconstructionism Reconstructionism is an important contribution of Theodore Brameld in the world of educational philosophy. Brameld in his book, ‘Education as Power’, says â€Å"education has two major roles: to transmit culture and to modify culture. In reconstructionism, education is seen as a way to bring out positive changes in society. The educational purpose of reconstructionism is to create social reform in which education serves as a mean to make people view society with a critical eye. Learners should never settle for what is but have to do critical thinking and dream of what should be. This branch of philosophy strives for a constant and positive change for the betterment of the society. A famous reconstructivionist, Paulo Freire (1921-1997) sees teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in which the child must invent and reinvent the world. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) and Paulo Freire (1921-1997) . Source: Google Image. The goal of reconstructionist learning is that the students themselves should conceive the good future. The students receive education as a preparation for their role in the future. Therefore, it is important for students to experience and taking social action on actual problems. Students should be willing to spend time in the community to learn its problems. Rote learning, memorization and direct-method are not preferable in recontructionism. Besides, reconstructionist students should possess a high sense of duty towards society. They are then are expected to be the leaders of reformation in society to form an observant, inquisitive, open-minded and highly capable society. As education should prepare students to become agents for change, reconstructionism philosophy believes that teachers must convince their students of the validity and urgency of the reconstructionist solution. However, teachers must do so with scrupulous scrutiny for democratic procedures. At the same time, learning process should enable the learners to be in control of their own fate and able to make social reform. 1. 2 Progressivism Source: Google Image Progressivism is the educational application of a philosophy called pragmatism. John Dewey refined pragmatism and applied to education, which later became known as progressivism. Progressivism believes that school should encourage cooperation, not competition. According to Dewey, democracy and freedom are far superior to the traditional political ideas. He viewed progressive schools as a working model of democracy. In curriculum, progressivism also holds the same view as reconstructinism which the selection of subject content depends on the skills that will be needed in future society. This is because knowledge taught must help people to adapt to change. Progressivists believe that individuality, progress, and change are fundamental. In Progressivism, education is not to prepare students to live; it should be life itself. Learning should focus on understanding and action, not rote knowledge. Thus, it is believed that problem solving is the most effective way. As similar to reconstructinisim philosophy, progressivism prefers varied learning resources and it also views the best way to learn is through direct experience with the environment. As this philosophy puts more concern on students, teacher is seen as an advisor, not a director. The progressive teacher aids students in learning by helping students formulate meaningful questions and devise strategies to answer them. The answers are discovered from real world experience instead of mere reading or theories. 1. 3 Existentialism Among the three philosophies, existentialism has the highest degree of importance on the learners. Soren Kierkegaard is considered to have been the first existentialist philosopher though he himself did not use the term. He proposed that each individual is solely responsible for giving meaning to life. It is Jean Paul Sartres that formulates the term existentialism. Existentialists argued that traditional approaches to philosophy do not adequately respect the uniqueness of each individual. This philosophy is against the views of any existence of authoritative truth about metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. In existentialism, it is strongly believed that every individual is responsible to decide what is true or false† and right or wrong, Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855). Source: Google Image. The educational goal of existentialism is education should challenge people to create personal meanings of their own design which means that the others’ interpretations should not be imposed on them. Learning activities will be organized around students requests. Although existentialist educators provide some curricular structure, students have great latitude in their choice of subject matter. In an existentialist curriculum, students are given a wide variety of options. The curriculum often emphasizes the humanities as to provide students with experiences that will in developing creativity and self-expression. However, there is no rigidness of curriculum. As Learners should have a voice in deciding how the school operates, school is not the institution for transmitting the core culture, but as a experimental lab for students to realize their individuality before improving the society at a larger extend. Education should emphasize field trips and experiential learning as ways to help the youth explore the world and seek their own meaning. The role of teachers is to expose students to many ways and life options in helping them defining their own essence. Besides, teachers facilitate students by creating a stress free classroom with positive atmosphere. Existentialism centres vast concern on students with high respect to their personal perspectives and freedom more than any other educational philosophy. 2. 0 Teaching Approach 2. 1 Introduction In teaching English as a second language (ESL) classroom, there are a variety of teaching methods and approaches. Over the years, many different teaching approaches have been developed to match students’ need. Here is student-centred method that concerns more on students during educational process. Therefore, this approach acknowledges and agrees with the three philosophies mentioned earlier. 2. 2 Communicative approach. Communicative approach is a famous and recent approach in ESL learning. In fact, many ESL books seem to claim that they are based on this approach. The communicative approach is believed to have taken place in language learning in the 1970s. The pressure was put on educators when there was a rise in the number of people wanting to learn foreign language for personal reasons. Many of the teachers realized the importance of switching their traditional teaching method towards a better method that prefers application of language in an active learning environment. In ESL class, communicative approach believes that learning of language is most successful when learners are involved in real communication as they can develop natural strategies in language acquisition. As a result, there will be more emphasis on skills than systems. The syllabus is based on functional development not structural development. In communicative approach, teachers will not do drilling or repetition method but focus on constructing real life situations in classroom. This agrees with reconstructionism philosophy that is to bring the world inside the classroom. Therefore, teachers will vary the use of authentic materials. Communicative approach believes that teachers will have to maximize the opportunities for learners to communicate. Students are encouraged to interact with one another, doing given tasks in pairs on in groups. This is in unison with progressivism understanding that school should encourage cooperation, not competition. Teachers are only there to monitor and facilitate them without interference and give feedbacks after they have done. This is also in par with progressivism philosophy that is teachers are rather advisors, not directors. As students learn through trial and error process, teachers of communicative approach should always tolerate mistakes. It is important for teachers of communicative approach to apply tactfulness and creativity in teaching. . 3 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is not a new approach in ESL methodology but a medium which helps English teachers to be more affective and engaging with students. Since the 1960s, computers have been used for language teaching. CALL is a tool that combines many advantages such as enabling students to have experiential learning, motivation, achievement, authentic materials for studyin g, wider interaction, individualization pace, greater source of information, and global understanding. There are three main stages for CALL. As CALL can be successfully applied not only for grammar practice but also for communicative activities, communicative CALL has been established in 1970 with the spread of communicative approach. For reconstructionists, bringing real life problems or issues to students is important in learning process. CALL helps in facilitating the students to be involved in the actual situation. Decision making, asking for advice, agreeing and disagreeing, and compromising with friends are some tasks that need authentic settings. Internet especially social media such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Skype and blogs connects the students with people of all around the world. Thus, students who are second language users of English can even communicate with native speakers and polish communicative skill in English. Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) provides an effective learning environment. The advancement of speech and language technologies has opened new perspectives on CALL. Students can practice in an interactive manner using multi-media content. CALL inherently supports students’ autonomy, which places the students firmly in control so that they can decide their own goal and pace in self-learning. Therefore, students have the freedom in learning and this agrees with existentialism philosophy that students should create their own personal meanings through education. Source: Google Image It has been described in reconstructionism philosophy that teachers must be familiar with the constant change. Students of 21st century are knowledgeable in the use of computer and web learning. Y-generation is equipped with modern gadgets and most of the students are even more advance in technology than their teachers. Thus, teachers of modern approach should update themselves with recent developments of technology. By using Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) as a tool in teaching, teachers can help students become more involved in the task and monitor students’ progress with the help of computer. 4. 0 Personal Educational Philosophy 4. 1 Introduction My very own educational philosophy is my answers about why, what and how I will be teaching, and about the nature of learning and teaching. It is my personal set of principles that guides my professional actions now and surely later in life when I become a teacher. As I read and learn educational philosophies of the Western scholars, I realize the importance of having my own school of thought. My life experiences, values, environment and interactions are the aspects that will continuously shape my personal philosophy in education. 4. 2 Influence of educational philosophies Educational philosophy that attracts me the most is progressivism. To a certain extent, I also agree with reconstructionism and existentialism. As we can notice, these philosophies centre on students during teaching and learning process. When I was a school student, I had always love teachers who acknowledge students’ opinions and attend to their students’ questions with patience and compassion. This kind of teachers receives back the love, trust and respect that they put on students. I believe that educators who are authoritative and using traditional approach are boring and fail to develop intimate relationship with their students. This will then affect the sharing of knowledge between the teachers and their students. Other than that, progressivism is in accordance with my own view of life. I believe that life is a continuous educational process. As I explained earlier, progressivist believes education is not to prepare students to live; it should be life itself. We can never stop learning as we pick up new things every single day, be it useful ones or not. Learning process is not limited to the syllabus or fixed curriculum at school, but a thorough process covering almost everything we do for betterment of self. Coincidently, we improve our society and our nation at large. This agrees with reconstructionism which aims for social reformation for more positive change. 4. 3 Defining Education in own words Education is an eternal process in bringing out the best in ourselves and others, be it formally or informally which results in positive development of every individual in terms of thinking and action. Learning and teaching are two inter-dependent mechanisms that make up education. Learning is self-seeking enlightenment and progression which take place with the help of guidance while teaching is sharing of ideas and insights to grow new and more powerful wisdom. Education is never to build competition with other people around but within oneself. It is also a tool to free human beings from hatred and sufferings. Education is also the reasoning of the past and a way of fulfilling future dreams and hopes. Elaboration: My personal meaning of education implicitly tells my philosophy of education. It shows how I perceive education which acts as a baseline on my actions. It is clear that I view the purpose of education as a lasting way to be better in life. It is never limited to what I learn formally but covers everything that I do that helps in self-betterment. I believe learning is self-seeking progression which means nobody has the power to force someone to learn unless that person is willing to seek knowledge. I also believe teaching is sharing which means it is a two way process. Other than that, from the above philosophy, I suggest that education is not to create competition with others but within oneself which means we have to aim to be better than yesterday, not to be better than other people. I also view education as a hope to bring peace and happiness in this world as it widens our perspective. Lastly, I see education as a present gift that helps in accepting the past wholeheartedly and building the strength of tomorrow. 4. 4 Methods My personal educational philosophy is in accordance with communicative approach that has been explained earlier. As a future ESL (English as a second language) teacher, teaching language means to share and apply the knowledge of English with others. It is important to motivate my students to communicate efficiently in English by building a strong rapport with them and being a good role model to the students. I will create a pressure-free class so that students feel comfortable to speak and voice out opinions. Learning language is not just a matter of knowing grammatical structure but also as a medium to share about cultures and develop values. I would like to set an enjoyable and active learning environment for the students in classroom. This can be done by doing a handful of games and activities but imparting the knowledge altogether. Some activities that I can do for the students are role-playing, debating, guessing games, quizzes with rewards and many others. A lot of the time, I will let the students do their task in pairs of groups so that they can interact and share ideas with one another. As language is inseparable with the real world, I will encourage the students to use the language outside the class and school compound. The use CALL (Computer-assisted Language Learning) is also vital. Therefore, my students will be encouraged to communicate in virtual world such as blog and Facebook. I can venture into my students’ thoughts more personally and make it easier for me to facilitate them in their progress. At the end of the day, the main objective which to improve the students’ level of English can be achieved successfully. At the same time, the students have also flourished their minds with positive thinking and developed learning skills to be use throughout life. They are then become the future generation whom is excellent and competent both locally and internationally. 4. 4 Conclusion There is no general agreement on what human beings ought to learn in order to have the best in life. There will also be continuous debate whether education should focus on cognitive development or character development first. I have also aware that there are different needs and styles given by different group of students. Thus, I may have to vary and adapt my methods when encountering my student at different level. The tendency to stick to merely one philosophy among all other philosophies discussed may bring flaws. Thus, a variety of teaching methods and adapting my philosophy over time are highly required.

Uses Of Computer Network Data Transmission Modes Information Technology Essay

Uses Of Computer Network Data Transmission Modes Information Technology Essay We all are aware with some sorts of communication in our day to day life. For communication of information and messages we use telephone and postal communication systems. Similarly data and information from one computer system can be transmitted to other systems across geographical areas. Thus data transmission is the movement of information using some standard methods. These methods include electrical signals carried along a conductor, optical signals along an optical fibers and electromagnetic areas. Suppose a Managing Director of a company has to write several letters to various employees . First he has to use his PC and Word Processing package to prepare his letter. If the PC is connected to all the employees PCs through networking, he can send the letters to all the employees within minutes. Thus irrespective of geographical areas, if PCs are connected through communication channel, the data and information, computer files and any other program can be transmitted to other computer systems within seconds. The modern form of communication technologies like e-mail and Internet is possible only because of computer networking. Computers are powerful tools. When they are connected in a network, they become even more powerful because the functions and tools that each computer provides can be shared with other computers. Networks exist for one major reason: to share information and resources. Networks can be very simple, such as a small group of computers that share information, or they can be very complex, covering large geographical areas. Regardless of the type of network, a certain amount of maintenance is always required. Because each network is different and probably utilizes many various technologies, it is important to understand the fundamentals of networking and how networking components interact. In the computer world, the term network describes two or more connected computers that can share resources such as data, a printer, an Internet connection, applications, or a combination of these. Prior to the widespread networking that led to the Internet, most communication networks were limited by their nature to only allow communications between the stations on the network. Some networks had gateways or bridges between them, but these bridges were often limited or built specifically for a single use. One common computer networking method was based on the central mainframe method, simply allowing its terminals to be connected via long leased lines. This method was used in the 1950s by Project RAND to support researchers such as Herbert Simon, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, when collaborating across the continent with researchers in Santa Monica, California, on automated theorem proving and artificial intelligence. At the core of the networking problem lay the issue of connecting separate physical networks to form one logical network. During the 1960s, several groups worked on and implemented packet switching. Donald Davies, Paul Baran and Leonard Kleinrock are credited with t he simultaneous invention. The notion that the Internet was developed to survive a nuclear attack has its roots in the early theories developed by RAND. Barans research had approached packet switching from studies of decentralisation to avoid combat damage compromising the entire network. By mid-1968, Taylor had prepared a complete plan for a computer network, and, after ARPAs approval, a Request for Quotation (RFQ) was sent to 140 potential bidders. Most computer science companies regarded the ARPA-Taylor proposal as outlandish, and only twelve submitted bids to build the network; of the twelve, ARPA regarded only four as top-rank contractors. At years end, ARPA considered only two contractors, and awarded the contract to build the network to BBN techologies on 7 April 1969. The initial, seven-man BBN team were much aided by the technical specificity of their response to the ARPA RFQ and thus quickly produced the first working computers. The BBN-proposed network closely followed Taylors ARPA plan: a network composed of small computers called Interface message processor (IMPs), that functioned as gateways (today routers) interconnecting local resources. At each site, the IMPs performed store-and-forward packet switching functions, and were interconnected with modems that were connected to leased line, initially running at 50 kilobit/second. The host computers were connected to the IMPs via custom serial communication interfaces. The system, including the hardware and the packet switching software, was designed and installed in nine months. The first-generation IMPs were initially built by BBN Technologies using a rough computer version of the Honeywell DDP-516 computer configured with 24 Kilobyte of expandable core memory, and a 16-channel Direct Multiplex Control (DMC) Direct Memory Access unit. The DMC established custom interfaces with each of the host computers and modems. In addition to the front-panel lamps, the DDP-516 computer also features a special set of 24 indicator-lamps showing the status of the IMP communication channels. Each IMP could support up to four local hosts, and could communicate with up to six remote IMPs via leased lines. 1.2 ARPANET The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), was the worlds first operational Packet Switching network and the core network of a set that came to compose the global Internet. The network was created by a small research team at the Massachusettas Institute of Technology and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) of the Defence Department of United States. The packet switching of the ARPANET was based on designs by Lawrence Roberts of the Lincoln Laboratories. Packet switching is the dominant basis for data communications worldwide and it was a new concept at the time of the conception of the ARPANET. Data communications had been based on the idea of Circuit Switching, as in the traditional telephone circuit, wherein a telephone call reserves a dedicated circuit for the duration of the communication session and communication is possible only between the two parties interconnected. With packet switching, a data system could use one communications link to communicate with more than one machine by collecting data into Datagram and transmit these as Packet onto the attached network link, whenever the link is not in use. Thus, not only could the link be shared, much as a single PostBox can be used to post letters to different destinations, but each packet could be routed independently of other packets. 1.3 SNA Systems Network Architecture (SNA) is IBMs proprietary Computer Network architecture created in 1974. It is a complete Protocol Stack for interconnecting Computer and their resources. SNA describes the protocol and is, in itself, not actually a program. The implementation of SNA takes the form of various communications packages, most notably Virtual telecommunications access method (VTAM) which is the mainframe package for SNA communications. SNA is still used extensively in banks and other financial transaction networks, as well as in many government agencies. While IBM is still providing support for SNA, one of the primary pieces of hardware, the IBM 3745/3746 communications controller has been withdrawn from marketing by the IBM Corporation. However, there are an estimated 20,000 of these controllers installed and IBM continues to provide hardware maintenance service and micro code features to support users. A strong market of smaller companies continues to provide the 3745/3746, features, parts and service. VTAM is also supported by IBM, as is the IBM Network Control Program (NCP) required by the 3745/3746 controllers. IBM in the mid-1970s saw itself mainly as a hardware vendor and hence all its innovations in that period aimed to increase hardware sales. SNAs objective was to reduce the costs of operating large numbers of terminals and thus induce customers to develop or expand Interactive terminal based-systems as opposed to Batch Processing systems. An expansion of interactive terminal based-systems would increase sales of terminals and more importantly of mainframe computers and peripherals partly because of the simple increase in the volume of work done by the systems and partly because interactive processing requires more computing power per transaction than batch processing. Hence SNA aimed to reduce the main non-computer costs and other difficulties in operating large networks using earlier communications protocols. The difficulties included: A communications line could not be shared by terminals whose users wished to use different types of application, for example one which ran under the control of CICS and another which ran under Time Sharing Option. Often a communications line could not be shared by terminals of different types, as they used different vernacular of the existing communications protocols. Up to the early 1970s, computer components were so expensive and bulky that it was not feasible to include all-purpose communications interface cards in terminals. Every type of terminal had a Hardwired Control communications card which supported only the operation of one type of terminal without compatibility with other types of terminals on the same line. The protocols which the primitive communications cards could handle were not efficient. Each communications line used more time transmitting data than modern lines do. Telecommunications lines at the time were of much lower quality. For example, it was almost impossible to run a dial-up line at more than 300 bits per second because of the overwhelming error rate, as comparing with 56,000 bits per second today on dial-up lines; and in the early 1970s few leased lines were run at more than 2400 bits per second (these low speeds are a consequence of Shannon-Hartly Theorm in a relatively low-technology environment). Telecommunications companies had little incentive to improve line quality or reduce costs, because at the time they were mostly monopolies and sometimes state-owned. As a result running a large number of terminals required a lot more communications lines than the number required today, especially if different types of terminals needed to be supported, or the users wanted to use different types of applications (.e.g. under CICS or TSO) from the same location. In purely financial terms SNAs objectives were to increase customers spending on terminal-based systems and at the same time to increase IBMs share of that spending, mainly at the expense of the telecommunications companies. SNA also aimed to overcome a limitation of the architecture which IBMs System/370 mainframes inherited from System/360. Each CPU could connect to at most 16 channels (devices which acted as controllers for peripherals such as tape and disk drives, printers, card-readers) and each channel could handle up to 16 peripherals i.e. there was maximum of 256 peripherals per CPU. At the time when SNA was designed, each communications line counted as a peripheral. Thus the number of terminals with which powerful mainframe could otherwise communicate is severely limited. SNA removed link control from the application program and placed it in the NCP. This had the following advantages and disadvantages: Advantages Localization of problems in the telecommunications network was easier because a relatively small amount of software actually dealt with communication links. There was a single error reporting system. Adding communication capability to an application program was much easier because the formidable area of link control software that typically requires interrupt processors and software timers was relegated to system software and NCP. With the advent of APPN, routing functionality was the responsibility of the computer as opposed to the router (as with TCP/IP networks). Each computer maintained a list of Nodes that defined the forwarding mechanisms. A centralized node type known as a Network Node maintained Global tables of all other node types. APPN stopped the need to maintain APPC routing tables that explicitly defined endpoint to endpoint connectivity. APPN sessions would route to endpoints through other allowed node types until it found the destination. This was similar to the way that TCP/IP routers function today. Disadvantages Connection to non-SNA networks was difficult. An application which needed access to some communication scheme, which was not supported in the current version of SNA, faced obstacles. Before IBM included X.25 support (NPSI) in SNA, connecting to an X.25 network would have been awkward. Conversion between X.25 and SNA protocols could have been provided either by NCP software modifications or by an external protocol converter. A sheaf of alternate pathways between every pair of nodes in a network had to be predesigned and stored centrally. Choice among these pathways by SNA was rigid and did not take advantage of current link loads for optimum speed. SNA network installation and maintenance are complicated and SNA network products are (or were) expensive. Attempts to reduce SNA network complexity by adding IBM Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking functionality were not really successful, if only because the migration from traditional SNA to SNA/APPN was very complex, without providing much additional value, at least initially. The design of SNA was in the era when the concept of layered communication was not fully adopted by the computer industry. Applications, Database and communication functions were come together into the same protocol or product, to make it difficult to maintain or manage. That was very common for the products created in that time. Even after TCP/IP was fully developed, X Window system was designed with the same model where communication protocols were embedded into graphic display application. SNAs connection based architecture invoked huge state machine logic to keep track of everything. APPN added a new dimension to state logic with its concept of differing node types. While it was solid when everything was running correctly, there was still a need for manual intervention. Simple things like watching the Control Point sessions had to be done manually. APPN wasnt without issues; in the early days many shops abandoned it due to issues found in APPN support. Over time, however, many of the issues were worked out but not before the advent of the Web Browser which was the beginning of the end for SNA. 1.4 X.25 and public access Following on from DARPAs research, packet switching networks were developed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the form of X.25 networks. In 1974, X.25 formed the basis for the SERCnet network between British academic and research sites, which would later become JANET. The initial ITU Standard on X.25 was approved in March 1976. The British Post Office, Western Union International and Tymnet collaborated to create the first international packet switched network, referred to as the International Packet Switched Service (IPSS), in 1978. This network grew from Europe and the US to cover Canada, Hong Kong and Australia by 1981. By the 1990s it provided a worldwide networking infrastructure. Unlike ARPAnet, X.25 was also commonly available for business use. X.25 would be used for the first dial-in public access networks, such as Compuserve and Tymnet. In 1979, CompuServe became the first service to offer electronic mail capabilities and technical support to personal computer users. The company broke new ground again in 1980 as the first to offer real-time chat with its CB Simulator. There were also the America Online (AOL) and Prodigy dial in networks and many bulletin board system (BBS) networks such as The WELL and FidoNet. FidoNet in particular was popular amongst hobbyist computer users, many of them hackers and radio amateurs. 1.5 UUCP In 1979, two students at Duke University, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis, came up with the idea of using simple Bourne shell scripts to transfer news and messages on a serial line with nearby University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Following public release of the software, the mesh of UUCP hosts forwarding on the Usenet news rapidly expanded. UUCPnet, as it would later be named, also created gateways and links between FidoNet and dial-up BBS hosts. UUCP networks spread quickly due to the lower costs involved, and ability to use existing leased lines, X.25 links or even ARPANET connections. By 1983 the number of UUCP hosts had grown to 550, nearly doubling to 940 in 1984 1.6 Uses of Computer Networks Computer networks have many uses in present life. However, the usage goes on increasing from day to day, More and more people use networks for their corresponding applications and thus increasing the area of usage. However, we categorize the usage of computer network as follows Resource Sharing: The global here is to make all programs equipment and especially data available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical location of the resource and the user. High Reliability: Always all the files could be replicated on one or more machine. So if one of them is unavailable the other copies could be used for the reference. Saving money: Small computers have a much better price / performance ratio than larger ones .Mainframes are roughly a factor of ten faster than personal computers, but they cost Thousand times more. This imbalance has caused many system designers to build systems Consisting of personal computers, with data kept on more than one machine Communication medium: A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium among widely separated employees. Using a network, it is easy for two or more people who live far apart to write a report together. When one person makes a change, the other can easily look into that and convey his acceptance. Access to remote information: Many People, pay their bills, manage their accounts, Book tickets, electronically. Home shopping has also become popular, with the ability to inspect the on-line catalogs of thousands of companies. There are also cases where people are able to get information electronically. Email: Electronic Mail or E-Mail is an application through which a person can communicate With another person present anywhere. E Mail is used today by millions of people and they Can send audio or video in addition to text. WWW (World Wide Web) : A main application that falls into the application category is access to information systems like the current World wide Web, which contains information about arts, books, business, cooking, government, health so on. 1.7. Data Transmission Modes: Data communication circuits can be configured in a huge number of arrangements depending on the specifics of the circuit, such as how many stations are on the circuit, type of transmission facility, distance between the stations, how many users at each station and so on. Data communication circuits can however be classified as either two point or multipoint . A two-point configuration involves only two stations, whereas a multipoint configuration involves more than two stations. Regardless of configuration, each station can have one or more computers, computer terminals or workstations. A two point circuit involves the transfer of digital information from a mainframe computer and a personal computer, two mainframe computers, two personal computers or two data communication networks. A multipoint network is generally used to interconnect a single mainframe computer to many personal computers or to interconnect many personal computers. Coming to transmission modes, there are four modes of transmission for data communication circuits namely- 1. Simplex 2. Half-Duplex 3. Full Duplex Simplex In a simplex mode, the transmission of data is always unidirectional. Information will be sent always only in one direction Simplex lines are also called receive-only, transmit-only, or one-way-only lines. A best example of simplex mode is Radio and Television broadcasts. Fig. 1.1 Simplex Communication Half-Duplex In the half-duplex mode, data transmission is possible in both the directions but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice-versa. These communication lines are also called two-way-alternate or either-way lines. Fig. 1.2 Half Duplex Communication Full Duplex In the full-duplex mode, the transmissions are possible in both directions simultaneous, but they must be between the same two stations. Full-duplex lines are also called two-way simultaneous duplex or both-way lines. A good example for full-duplex transmission is a telephone Fig. 1.3 Full Duplex Communication Types of Data Transmission Modes There are two types of data transmission modes. These are: Parallel Transmission Serial Transmission 1. Parallel Transmission In parallel transmission, bits of data flow concurrently through separate communication lines. Parallel transmission is shown in figure below. The automobile traffic on a multi-lane highway is an example of parallel transmission. Inside the computer binary data flows from one unit to another using parallel mode. If the computer uses 32-bk internal structure, all the 32-bits of data are transferred simultaneously on 32-lane connections. Similarly, parallel transmission is commonly used to transfer data from computer to printer. The printer is connected to the parallel port of computer and parallel cable that has many wires is used to connect the printer to computer. It is very fast data transmission mode. 2. Serial Transmission In serial data transmission, bits of data flow in sequential order through single communication line. Serial dat transmission is shown in figure below. The flow of traffic on one-lane residential street is an example of serial data transmission mode. Serial transmission is typically slower than parallel transmission, because data is sent sequentially in a bit-by-bit fashion. Serial mouse uses serial transmission mode in computer. Synchronous Asynchronous Transmissions Synchronous Transmission In synchronous transmission, large volumes of information can be transmitted at a time. In this type of transmission, data is transmitted block-by-block or word-byword simultaneously. Each block may contain several bytes of data. In synchronous transmission, a special communication device known as synchronized clock is required to schedule the transmission of information. This special communication device or equipment is expensive. Asynchronous Transmission In asynchronous transmission, data is transmitted one byte at a time. This type of transmission is most commonly used by microcomputers. The data is transmitted character-by-character as the user types it on a keyboard. An asynchronous line that is idle (not being used) is identified with a value 1, also known as Mark state. This value is used by the communication devices to find whether the line is idle or disconnected. When a character (or byte) is about to be transmitted, a start bit is sent. A start bit has a value of 0, also called a space state. Thus, when the line switches from a value of 1 to a value of 0, the receiver is alerted that a character is coming.

A Crossing of Old and New: Riddle 55 of the Exeter Book Essay -- Riddl

A Crossing of Old and New: Riddle 55 of the Exeter Book I saw in the hall, where heroes drank, carried onto the floor a wondrous woodtree of four kinds and wound gold, cunningly fastened treasure, and part of silver 5 and the sign of the cross, which He raised the ladder for us to heaven before He stormed the city of the inhabitants of hell. I can easily tell before noblemen the origin of this tree: there was maple and oak and the hard yew 10 and the dark holly: All together [they] were useful to the L(l)ord; All have one name, gallows; that often warded off (received) a weapon for its liege lord, a treasure in the hall, a gold-hilted sword. Now show me the answer 15 of this song, he who presumes to say in words how the wood is called. Most of the riddles contained in the Exeter Book have been answered to the satisfaction of the majority Anglo-Saxon scholars. One that continues to elude a definitive answer, however, is Riddle 55. Several solutions have been suggested, but only three have received critical consideration. Dietrich first offered the solution as scabbard, explaining, "The scabbard is richly decorated and divided into quarters by a cross, probably each quarter was made of a different wood" (qtd. in Taylor 497). Craig Williamson refutes this answer by pointing out that Anglo-Saxon shields were lined with leather or fleece and sometimes covered with cloth. In addition, "the structural weakness of such a hybrid should be obvious" (Williamson 307). Another solution, suggested by Leibermann, is sword rack, to which Williamson remarks, "there is no evidence in Old English or in Anglo-Saxon archaeology for the existence of an early English sword rack. There i... ...old as Christ’s deputy to their thanes. In any case, Riddle 55 deserves all the attention it has received from scholars. Works Cited Chaney, William A. The Cult of Kingship in Anglo-Saxon England: The Transition from Paganism to Christianity. Berkeley; U of California P, 1970. Chickering, Howell D., Jr., ed., trans. Beowulf. New York: Anchor Books, 1977. Crossley-Holland, Kevin, ed., trans. The Anglo-Saxon World: An Anthology. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1982. Mitchell, Bruce, and Fred C Bruce, eds. A Guide to Old English. 5th ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992. Taylor, Keith P. "Mazers, Mead, and the Wolf’s-head tree: A Reconsideration of Old English Riddle 55." Journal of English and Germanic Philology 94.4 (1995): 497-512. Williamson, Craig, ed. The Old English Riddles of the Exeter Book. Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina P, 1977.

Aboriginal Cooking Methods Essay

The traditional ways to cook for aboriginals used to involve roasting their food on hot coals, baking in the ashes & steaming in ground ovens. But today theses things have changed & the aboriginals have easier ways to cook using ‘technology’ from today. They have adapted to make the process easier by boiling & barbequing. Roasting; When cooking meat, this was the basic technique, which was almost always used. They cooked most meat, fish & small turtles. To make sure the meat was cooked through, it was also covered by ashes & coals, which also made tough meat softer. The meat would be eaten quickly after roasting. Shellfish were also cooked on the coals on the outside of the fire, this way when they started to froth, they could be removed quickly. Baking Bread & damper was cooked in the ashes. When aboriginals made fires, they made sure they used the right kind of firewood, so that after the fire was out, the ashes could be used for cooking their bread. They were very careful as to which wood they used because some woods made to bread taste bad & some caused irritation & discomfort. Over time, it was the wattle seed that was found to be the most successful for cooking. It gave no bad taste, gave no one irritations & produced a fine ash. Witchetty grubs only needed to be quickly rolled over the ashes to be cooked. Then damper was put beneath the ashes & then covered. To cook yam, or vegetables, they would dig a small hole, place the vegetable in it, and then cover it with ash. Steaming; In the Wiradjuri areas, steam ovens still exist. The ovens were made by digging a hole in the ground, they were about 90cm long, & 60cm deep. The clay left over from digging was then made into smooth lumps & then would be placed on top, once the hole was filled with selected firewood. While the wood burned, the clay became hot. The clay would then be removed with tongs. The pit would be swept out & then lined with still green leaves & grass. Then meat such as possums (because they were small enough) would be lain inside, covered with more leaves & then the clay would be placed on top. To stop the steam escaping, the ground that was originally taken out when the hole was dug covers the clay. Wrapping; Wrapping is still used in places like Arnhem Land. Vegetables are wrapped in the moist paper bark from Melaleuca trees & then placed in ground ovens. Today Aboriginals use more advanced methods of cooking. They have adapted their old ways to make them easier. Boiling; Aboriginals have now learned to boil foods in galvanized cans, tins, steel drums or whatever items are available. Because of this, ground ovens are being used less & less. Barbequing; Although the Aboriginals don’t have top of the range barbeques, they have got their own version. It is simply a piece of wire to hole pieces of meat or dough over red coals. Aboriginal Dreaming Although the Dreamtime was in the past, it is the Aborigines religion & culture that rules them today. The saying, ‘As it was done in the Dreamtime, so it must be done today,’ dominates all aspects of the Aboriginals lifestyle & actions. According to some Aboriginals, the Rainbow Serpent made the world. It is their belief that that is true. Religion is some peoples’ way, spiritualism is theirs. The Rainbow Serpent came from the Northern Territory while Australia was still in its dreaming stage. It traveled over the country, creating the mountainous locations by pushing the land into many ranges & isolated areas. The Great Dividing Range is a creation of the rainbow serpents movements. Throughout its journey over & under the land, it created rivers, valleys, & lakes. It was also careful to leave many areas flat. Once it was satisfied with its creation of Australia, spirit people came from inside it & moved all over the country to form many different lifestyles, languages & different stories. When the land was finally finished, it was ready for people, but there were none .Walya-Nam-Adiki was the woman who walked out of the sea & met up with a tribal man. Seen as there were no people, they talked about the problem with having such a wonderful land, but no people to live there. To fix this problem, they had many spirit children together. Walya-Nam-Adiki told all her children to go to all different places across the country & to speak new languages, make & keep land & water management. They were to stay in their chosen areas, & to make social & kinship systems which would make sure that there would always be people within their tribal boundaries. Other Aboriginals believe that when the world first existed, that giant semi-mortal beings that resembled plants & animals rose up from the flat land where they had been sleeping for countless ages. These beings wandered the land aimlessly. As they roamed around, they  performed the tasks that Aboriginals do today. These included camping, making fires, digging for water, fighting each other & performing ceremonies. When they became tired of carrying out these rituals, the dreamtime ended. Wherever the creators had been, a natural landform now marks the place. The creators made everything which Aboriginals are in contact with everyday & from which they gain their living. Apart from forming the land, they also created the laws that govern the aspects of everyday life, which some Aborigines still live by. Aboriginals in Jail & Custody The idea of over-representation of Aboriginal adults in prison is set down early for the younger generation to understand. In Juvenile Detention centers, aboriginals aged 10-17 were 24.2* times more likely to be in custody than non-aboriginal children. For aboriginals aged 18-21 the over-representation rate was 9.6* Indigenous rates of imprisonment in adult prisons varied between about 4* times the non-indigenous rate in Tasmania & up to over 20* times in Western & South Australia. At almost any time, up to 80% of inmates in Northern Territory ‘Correctional Facilities’ are of aboriginal descent. Whatever the intent, mandatory sentencing has more effect on aboriginals than any other ethnic group in the NT. Also Police custody rates for Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islanders was 26.2* times more likely than people of other races. Aboriginals are 25% of people that are arrested & 15% of people who are in jails are also Aboriginal. From data collected, aboriginals are over-represented in offences involving violence, breaking & entering, breaches of justice procedures & driving offences. Aboriginal people are 12 times more likely than others to be in prison for  homicide and 16 times for breaking and entering. One principle factor is that of the low status of the indigenous side of Australia in socio-economy & culture. In 1988, Commissioner Muirhead stated that â€Å"humanity and our country’s reputation demand a vigorous approach and new initiatives†. Years later, Aboriginals still continue to die in police cells & prisons. On 10th February, 2000 a 15 yr old boy committed suicide in the Don Dale Correctional Facility in Darwin. He had a mandatory 28jail sentence for petty theft of pens, pencils & paint. He was due for his release 4 days after his death. The Northern Territory Chief Minister simply swept aside the death & gave a statement â€Å"There will always be deaths in custody.† The death of the boy & the Country Liberal Party refused to even consider the re-appeal of the mandatory sentencing laws sent a break of outrage through many leading Australian, International & Aboriginal groups. Two weeks previous to the death, a Federal Senate traveled to Darwin, to make a report on the laws. None of the Country Liberal Party’s officials was prepared to give evidence at the hearing. The United Nations blasted Australia over these laws, & the treatment of the indigenous people to this land. Also saying that Canberra could be in breach of the UN Convention to Eliminate Racial Discrimination. *Based on records in 1998

China Compare to Australia

Abstract Consumer behaviour is important for any marketer. Cross cultural analysis provides crucial information as to what can be successful exported to international markets. In relation segmentation in China Australians need understand culture, subculture and cross-cultural affiliation. Another important factor when considering marketing opportunities is Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs. It is ever present that there are economic and cultural differences within China. Due to increased globalization and increased Westernisation of China cultures are beginning to blend.Understanding these two theories is imperative for exporters trying to expand into the diverse and complex Chinese market. Introduction: Cross-Cultural Analysis The Australia -China Free Trade Agreement (ACFTA) is offering the opportunities for Australian exporters to a gain more sustainable competitive advantages in the second largest economy in the world. Chinese domestic economic growth, liberalisation, and recent membership to the World Trade Organisation have given opportunities for Australian exporters and firms to expand in China (ACCI, 2004).Therefore, cross – cultural analysis has become an important tool for Australian marketers in analysing to what extent consumers of the two different nations differ. As a result, marketers will be able to study and understand in-depth the foreign market which to whom they will market their products to, since cultural acknowledgement will have a significant impact to every aspects of marketing particularly in segmenting the market and understanding the consumers' behaviors. People from different countries have different culture that shaped their characteristics and behaviors in their purchasing activity.Chinese Culture vs. Australian Culture (Segmentation: Culture, subculture and cross-cultural affiliation) Consumer behaviour is the most essential aspect of marketing, which outlines what consumers’ need, and what influences their buying behaviour. Therefore, it is vital to discuss the cultural, social, personal and physiological characteristic of the Chinese consumers in order for Australian marketers to understand Chinese consumer behaviours in order to successfully penetrate into the Chinese market. There are several ifferent studies conducted by experts which accentuate that the immature Chinese market's behaviour is similar to Australian culture who are price and brand sensitive, and are now constantly moving towards mature market, who view the well known foreign brands with superior quality and service as leverage to their social status (Yi-You, 2004). This movement is the result of the Chinese culture that underpins the importance of social status and a robust economy that boosts consumer confidence in spending (Giele, 2009). For instance, the sales figure for luxury cars in China has surprisingly increased within 2005-2010.According to the customs figures China has imported more than 100,000 luxury cars in recent years, approximately valued at $4. 84 billion (China Business, 2006). This example underlines the growing Chinese economy that significantly affected by consumers' spending bahaviour. It is obvious that Australia is similar in a sense where we live in a culture that underpins importance of social status; however this does not mean Australians will go out and buy a luxury car for the sake of promoting their economical situation.Australian consumers tend to use a cost-benefit analysis, that is, will the benefits of the vehicle outweigh its price, if yes sales will tend to increase, if no sales will drop (Reh, 2009). Therefore while there is a small similarity in demographic segment opportunities (socio-economical status), the buyer behaviour decision still differs. Luxury Cars Thus, it is crucial for Australian marketers to choose the best entry and pricing strategies to gain the potential market's loyalty and trust.In relation to the car industry, Australian subsidiaries such as Holden and Ford can penetrate the market with their high end vehicles the Calais, Caprice, Senator and Mondeo and ultimately make Chinese consumers aware of the quality and luxury that such brands underpin (Financial Times, 2009). In doing so exporters need to set themselves aside from competitors including Mercedes, BMW, AUDI and even neighbouring brand Lexus and show consumers the unique opportunity of investing in an Australian Luxury Vehicle. Chinese Superstition Furthermore, distinct Chinese culture is also playing an important role in shaping consumer's behaviour.Chinese people believe in â€Å"Feng Shui†, it is the strongest cultural impact on consumers in the decision-making process. This Differs from Australian culture who has a different perspective on such superstitious belief, in most cases Australian consumers would mock a marketing strategy with such a belief. Thus where the buying decisions of the Chinese is dependent on this cultural principle, the Australi an consumers care more about product quality, price, perceived benefits and service of the product, as opposed to what the product represents (Giele, 2009). Chinese believe that Feng Shui will bring them luck and peace.Therefore, Chinese consumers will consult â€Å"Feng Shui† experts before making the purchasing decision. For example, Chinese people interpreted number four (? pinyin si) as bad luck since it is nearly homophonous to the word â€Å"death† (? pinyin si). Therefore people in China do not like anything that involving number four (Lubin, 2010). In saying this when marketing Australian exporters should market in relation to positive Feng Shui beliefs in China. For example when marketing Australian wine which is rapidly increasing in popularity in the Chinese market, a marketer should avoid any aged wine with the number four.That is for example Shiraz from 2004, 1994, 1984. This has been reflected in the dramatic fall in sales, during 2004, and marketers were bewildered as to why it occurred (Lubin, 2010). Marketers should in fact promote wine from years that have the number eight included, as this is a symbol of prosperity and happiness. In saying this in the year 2008 Australian wine exporters could not keep up with demand from Chinese consumers, an increase in 32% from the previous year (Winefacts, 2009).Thus in order for Australians to penetrate the market they should do so harmoniously with the Feng Shui principle in order to succeed. Exporting alcoholic beverage to the Chinese Segment Culture is one of the most important factors and basic causes that influence consumer behaviour. It involves the attitudes, beliefs and knowledge which determine consumer’s buyer behaviour (Schiffman et al. 2008). For example, when there are a small number of consumers, it is easy for them to try and feel product variations and quality then the producer must meet the expectation.If these expectations are not met, consumers would never repurcha se that product. However, if there are a large number of consumers, a brand name must be established in order to reach new consumers, and it will develop with continued purchase by the consumer. In this process, marketer must adjust the product depending on different segmentations like culture. Take beer for instance, when a new brand of beer is introduced into a beer drinking country like Australia, fresh beer is always kept chilled, and Consumers do not want to order beer without being cool.It also needs to be kept away from the sunlight to maintain its taste, which is different from Chinese. In China, beer does not need to be kept in freezer and always exposed to the sunlight. Moreover, there is a difference of beer taste between Australian consumers and Chinese consumers. If the company exports the Australian beer directly to China, Chinese consumers will not accept it because Australian beer tastes too strong for the Chinese consumer (Mona Chung , 2007). Similarly, Chinese whit e spirit cannot fit Australian consumers because it is too hot for them.Nowadays, China's taste for wine provides a great market opportunity to Western Australia. Chinese consumers are growing interest for nice Australia wine. Agriculture and Food Minister, Mr. Redman said â€Å"Premium wine industry is gaining the attention of consumers in China, but to date there has not been a Chinese language book with information on WA wineries for this market†. Because Chinese consumers are getting thirst for Australia wine, Redman had launched a book in mandarin in Shanghai about Australian wine which includes 100 local top wineries in order to satisfy Chinese consumer expectation.Australia is one of top suppliers of wine to China. The wine exported annually to China has increased by 20% over the past 2 years (Josette Dunn, 2010). Redman predicts that the number of wine imported to China would grow to 1. 26 billion in 2013. Also , according to the research , total Australian wine expor ts to China grew 37% annually from 1999-2000 to 2004-2005 and increased at a rate of 84% annually from 2004-2005 to 2009-2010 . Moreover , wine intelligence shows the market in China which import wine could grow to between 70 and 80 million cases by 2025 (2010).In saying this, it is obvious that when segmenting to the Chinese market, marketers must take into account the diverse cultural beliefs of Chinese consumers, but also take into account the close similarities between buyer behaviours of the two nations. Hierarchy of needs Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (appendix 1) has been cited in numerous texts both in psychology and marketing. In the marketing context the hierarchy is useful in interpreting how different products and services satisfy different needs. The hierarchy is based on intuitive notion that certain needs must satisfied, at least partially, before reaching the next level.The most basic need of the hierarchy is physiological, examples are food, water and breathing . The next level is safety and security needs which covers shelter, protection and stability. These first two levels are necessary for human survival. The next three levels consist of psychological needs. These respectively are:- social needs such as affection, belonging and friendship; ego needs which includes prestige, status and self-respect and final self-actualisation which is the idea of self fulfilment or finding meaning with one’s life. Differences between culture China is generally considered a Collectivist culture.Collectivism is based on unity of the group, where people are encouraged to conform to society and do what is best for the community as a whole (Britannica, 2010). This means individuals are more easily persuaded by friends and family as there is a strong desire to fit in. Contrastingly, Australian and other Western Cultures are seen individualist societies where more emphasis is placed on each person being unique. This is why marketing is focused on makin g individuals stand out rather than blend in with the rest of the crowd (see appendix 2 & 3 for examples).In the Chinese commercial (appendix 2) it can be seen that collective culture and history still plays a major role in Chinese culture. The ad clearly targets the social need as Pepsi is seen to be drunk by the group and the new student must crush the can to be accepted into this culture. This allows him to become part of the dynasty and conform to the norm. This is juxtaposed to American commercial (appendix 3) where the individual is the focus of ad. It appeals to the ego and self actualisation needs as by drinking Pepsi you can achieve your ambition and be separated from the rest of the crowd.Thus the distinct marketing differences between the Collective Chinese culture and individualistic Australian culture can be seen. China is the world’s fastest growing economy and as such there has been a huge influx of Multi-national corporations. This has started to have an influ ence on China’s urban areas as they are becoming individualistic due to Western products. The change can also be attributed to the one child policy. This has made the new generation of Chinese far more self-centred and have become more indulgent in themselves as costs to run a family have lowered dramatically.This has allowed this generation far greater influence over their families decision making (Mari, 2008). Though Australia is seen as a uniform society where there is little poverty and relatively small gap between rich and poor in China however there is very distinct divide between urban and rural populations. The annual per capita income of urban Chinese was roughly three times as high as their rural counterparts and the Engel coefficient was 37% for urban and 46% for rural (Mari, 2008). Even more demonstrative is that Chinese urban and rural consumer spend only 3. and 2. 13% of their total income respectively on entertainment. This is compared to Australia where our to tal GDP per capita is $38,911 (World economic outlook database, 2010) and the average household spends a $150 a week on both groceries and entertainment. This equates to 22% of GDP per capita. It is obvious Australian culture focuses on high levels rather than the lower need on the hierarchy (ABS, 2006). The effect of Culture on the Hierarchy The differences in purchasing behaviour for urban and rural Chinese can be explained by Maslow’s needs hierarchy.People living in rural China live in a far more traditional society (Collective) and their consumption of goods is used to satisfy the social need to give a sense of belonging. Though the majority of their earnings is to satisfy their physiological, safety and security needs. The bicycle is an example of the social differences of culture in China. The bicycle is the main mode of transport as cars are still too expensive to afford for rural commuters. The bicycle is fulfilling their safety and security need as it allows people to get to work and thus provide for their family.Contrastingly, bicycles and bike riding in Australia is seen as a subculture mainly for leisure. Consumers who purchase bikes are doing so for their ego and self actualisation needs as they are simultaneously helping to lower pollution and increasing their physical appearance (At, 2006) Chinese; moving up Maslow’s Hierarchy Due to the cultural differences, there are high demands in luxurious branded items such as Louis Vuitton. This demand has increased due to higher incomes which has led consumers to access the higher levels of Maslow’s hierarchy.Chinese people are now purchasing luxury items for the prestige and social status which is associated with the high end brand. Loius Vuittton introduced itself into China as must have brand in order to conform to popular culture (Bloomberg Businessweek, 2007) Therefore, marketers of this brand have successfully expanded into this emerging market as it is evident that Chinese co nsumers tend to buy the same brand as others which is represented in their buying culture (Yau, 2007). However, Australians are less concerned about conforming to society so once a brand becomes popular consumers tend to try and create a new fashion trend.When Loius Vuitton markets to Australia it has constantly change its products as to not become a ‘fad’ or lose interest allowing customers to remain brand loyal. Australian Exporting opportunities It appears there are opportunities for Australians to export into China. As more and more urban areas are becoming Westernised more international companies are trying to gain entrance into the Chinese market. Hence as China’s economy continues to grow so will the income of its population giving them more discretion on purchases as they move up Maslow’s needs hierarchy.To effectively market to these consumers at present an Australian exporter would use direct marketing and word of mouth to make use of Collectivis t culture of China. Exporting education is the most worthwhile export. Marketers can accentuate the self actualisation and ego needs of the Chinese people and show them that by attending an Australian University they are likely to have a better education, giving them more employment opportunities, ultimately a better way of life thus satisfying these higher level needs.Moreover, Australian exporters can highlight to Chinese businesses the growing importance of speaking English, which they can gain under an Australian education. This will give them a far greater ability to expand outside of Asia. To make this easier Australian Universities can situate a campus within China in order to grant easier access to Australian education. This maintains the social needs of Chinese students but could fulfil their ego and self actualisation by learning English from a prestigious institution.Recently the world expo in Beijing gave Australian exporters a chance to promote Australian education and give a good insight into the benefits of studying in Australia (Xiuyun, 2009). Conclusion It is evident there exists great potential for Australians to expand in the Chinese market but in order to do this they must understand socio-cultural segmentation and why different segments embody different needs on Maslow’s hierarchy. It is also important to understand the similarities between the two nations as China is becoming more Westernised, therefore insight into Western and Chinese culture is collectively important.References At, M. 2006, Bicycle culture, Copenhagenize. com, viewed at 26th August 2010 . Australian Bureau Statistics, 2010, Perspectives on Regional Australia, Australian Government view at 25th August 2010, . Australian Chambers of Commerce And Industry, 2004, Australia-China Free Trade Agreement, ACCI, Viewed 25th August 2010 . Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation 2009, Winefacts, Australian Government, viewed 27 August 2010 . Reh, JF 2009, Cost-Benefit Analysi s, About. com, viewed 27 August 2010, . Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation , Did you know? -China , Issue 31, 6 August 2010 , viewed 27th August 2010 . Bloomberg Businessweek 2007, Louis Vuitton's Life of Luxury, Bloomberg, viewed August 23rd 2010 ;http://www. businessweek. com/magazine/content/07_32/b4045419. htm;. 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Mari, A. 2008, Understanding Chinese rural consumers, Course of International Management, viewed 25th August 2010 ;http://www. scribd. com/doc/10863701/Understanding-Chinese-Rural-Consumers-Implications-for-marketers-by-Alex-Mari;. Sun, L 2007, ‘Understanding Self-gift Consumer Behaviour (SGCB) in China: How culture influences SGCB’, MA in Marketing thesis,Weinshall, TD 1993, Societal culture and management, de Gruyter-Studienbuch, Germany World Economic Outlook Database 2010, GDP Per Capita, International Monetary Fund, viewed on 25th August 2010. ;http://www. imf. org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept. aspx? pr. x. html;. Xiuyun, S. 2009, Education to China, Austrade, viewed August 23rd 2010 ;http://www. austrade. gov. au/Education-to-China/default. aspx;. Yi-You, L 2010, Brand Effect on Consumer Behaviour in China, Southern